- Mediterranean Diet
- Italian Diet
- French Diet
- Nordic Diet
- British and Irish Diet
- German and Central European Diet
- Russian and Eastern European Diet
- Middle Eastern Diet
- Ethiopian Diet
- West African Diet
No. 23Mediterranean Diet
The traditional way of eating in Greece, southern Italy and Spain in the mid-1900s (not the takeout version): vegetables, fruit, beans, whole grains, nuts, olive oil as the main fat, fish and seafood, cheese and yogurt in moderate amounts, little red meat and sweets, and wine with meals for some. Meals are shared and unhurried, which may be the hardest part for the rest of us.
Strengths
- One of the best-studied diets. In the PREDIMED trial in Spain, people at high heart risk who added extra-virgin olive oil or nuts had fewer heart attacks and strokes than those on a low-fat diet.
- Built on whole foods, with plenty of fiber, healthy fats and omega-3 fats from fish.
- Flexible and enjoyable, so many people can keep it up for life.
Watch out for
- "Mediterranean" restaurant food in other countries is often refined pasta, white bread, pizza and fried food, not the traditional diet. A flag on the menu doesn't make it so.
- Alcohol is optional, not a health requirement; people who don't drink should not start.
- Olive oil quality varies; much sold as "extra virgin" is lower grade or blended. Sometimes the label is more "extra" than the oil.
Eating well within it
- Make vegetables, beans and fish the center of the plate, and use extra-virgin olive oil generously.
- Choose whole grains and sourdough over white bread and pasta, and keep portions moderate.
- Keep sweets for occasions, as tradition did.
Possible supplement needs
Usually few. Vitamin D if sun exposure is low; omega-3 if fish is rarely eaten.
Who should be careful
People with celiac disease (wheat-based staples), anyone avoiding alcohol, and people on blood thinners who change their intake of leafy greens (vitamin K) suddenly.
No. 24Italian Diet
Italian cooking is regional. In the north, cooks traditionally used butter, rice (risotto), polenta, cheese and cured meats; in the south, olive oil, tomatoes, pasta, beans and vegetables, much like the Mediterranean diet. A traditional meal comes in small courses: an antipasto, a modest first course of pasta, rice or soup, a second course of meat or fish with a vegetable side, then fruit, with sweets kept for Sundays and feasts. Small plates, long table, no rush.
Strengths
- Southern Italian cooking is one of the roots of the Mediterranean diet, with plenty of vegetables, beans, olive oil and fish.
- Each course is small, so a full meal is varied without being huge. Variety, minus the food coma.
- Fresh, seasonal food and home cooking are central.
Watch out for
- Italian-American and fast-food versions (huge plates of pasta, deep-dish pizza, garlic bread, heavy cream sauces) are very different from the traditional diet. Bigger is not more authentic.
- Pasta and white bread are refined grains; eaten in large amounts, they raise blood sugar.
- Cured meats (salami, prosciutto) and aged cheeses are high in salt, and processed meat is linked to bowel cancer.
- Many Italians today, including children, eat more snacks, sweet drinks and packaged food than past generations did. The vending machine found Italy too.
Eating well within it
- Serve pasta as a modest first course, followed by vegetables and fish or beans, rather than as one big plate. Cook it al dente, as Italians do; it digests more slowly than soft pasta.
- Try pasta e fagioli (pasta and beans), minestrone, or whole-grain pasta with tomatoes, greens and olive oil.
- Choose thin-crust pizza topped with vegetables over meat-loaded, deep-dish versions.
- Keep aged cheese as a small taste, not the main protein (it's a garnish, not a food group), and choose fish, chicken or beans over cured meats.
Possible supplement needs
Usually few. Vitamin D if sun exposure is low; omega-3 if fish is rarely eaten.
Who should be careful
People with celiac disease (pasta, bread and pizza are wheat-based), and anyone watching blood pressure, who should go easy on cured meats and aged cheese.
No. 25French Diet
Traditional French eating centers on fresh bread, butter, cheese, cream, vegetables, meat and fish, with wine at meals for many adults. Meals are long and eaten at set times, portions are small, and snacking is uncommon (apart from a small afternoon snack, the goûter, for children). Shopping at fresh markets and cooking from scratch are part of the culture. Grazing at a desk is not.
Strengths
- In the 1990s, researchers noted that the French had fairly low rates of heart disease despite eating plenty of butter, cheese and cream. This "French paradox" is still debated. Suggested reasons include smaller portions, less snacking, more fresh food and differences in how deaths were recorded. Some credited red wine, but that idea has weak support, however good it sounds at dinner.
- Slow, shared meals and small portions help people notice when they are full, before the waistband does.
- Fresh, seasonal, home-cooked food and a real respect for quality.
Watch out for
- The everyday baguette is white bread, and pastries such as croissants are refined flour, butter and sugar. Delicious, yes; whole food, no.
- Cheese, charcuterie (cured meats) and bread add up to a lot of salt.
- Regular wine drinking carries risks, including for the liver and some cancers. Alcohol is not a health requirement.
- Modern France has more fast food, ready meals and snacking than in the past, and the traditional meal schedule is weakening in some homes. The microwave has learned French.
Eating well within it
- Keep the good habits: sit down for meals, eat slowly, and skip snacks. No passport required.
- Choose whole-grain bread (pain complet) or traditional sourdough (pain au levain) over the white baguette.
- Build meals around soups, salads, vegetables, lentils and fish, with cheese as a small course.
- Keep pastries for weekends, and enjoy every flaky crumb.
Possible supplement needs
Usually few. Vitamin D in winter, especially in northern France.
Who should be careful
Anyone avoiding alcohol, people with high blood pressure (salty cheese, bread and cured meats), and people with celiac disease.
No. 26Nordic Diet
The New Nordic Diet grew out of a movement in Denmark, around 2004, to revive local, seasonal Nordic food, and was later shaped into a diet for study. It is built on rye, oats and barley, berries, root vegetables, cabbage, fish and seafood, wild foods, and rapeseed (canola) oil as the main fat. It draws on older traditions such as rye bread, porridge and salted or cured fish like herring and gravlax. Less trendy bistro, more grandmother's pantry.
Strengths
- In the SYSDIET study, run in several Nordic countries, people with features of metabolic syndrome who ate a healthy Nordic diet had better blood cholesterol markers than a control group, even though their weight stayed about the same. Good news for anyone tired of the bathroom scale running the show.
- Rye, oats, berries and cabbage add fiber and antioxidants. Humble foods, hard workers.
- Fatty fish such as herring, mackerel and salmon supply omega-3 fats.
Watch out for
- Salted, pickled and smoked fish are high in salt, and pickled herring is often sweetened. Read the jar.
- Rapeseed oil in stores is usually refined. The book prefers cold-pressed rapeseed oil, or traditional fats in moderation.
- Some Baltic Sea fish can contain pollutants; Swedish and Finnish health authorities advise children and women who may become pregnant to limit certain Baltic fatty fish.
- Modern Nordic eating often includes white bread, pastries, candy and processed meat, which is not this diet, however Nordic the packaging looks.
Eating well within it
- Swap white bread for dense whole-grain rye bread, and start the day with oat or barley porridge topped with berries.
- Eat fish two or three times a week, choosing fresh fish more often than heavily salted kinds.
- Fill the plate with root vegetables, cabbage, peas and beans. Not glamorous, just good.
Possible supplement needs
Vitamin D is often needed in Nordic winters, when sunlight is weak. Omega-3 if fish is rarely eaten.
Who should be careful
People with celiac disease (rye, barley and wheat; oats only if certified gluten-free), people with high blood pressure (salted and cured fish), and pregnant women choosing fish.
No. 27British and Irish Diet
Traditional British and Irish food is hearty farmhouse cooking: a Sunday roast with potatoes and vegetables, stews such as Irish stew and Lancashire hotpot, shepherd's pie, oat porridge and oatcakes, soda bread, milk, butter and cheese. The full breakfast (eggs, bacon, sausages, black pudding, beans, tomatoes, mushrooms and toast) and fish and chips are national favorites. Tea, often with milk and sugar, is drunk through the day.
Strengths
- Traditional cooking used whole, local foods: potatoes, oats, root vegetables, cabbage, lamb, beef, fish and dairy. Not a ready meal in sight.
- Oats and porridge are filling and rich in fiber.
- Home stews are simple, nourishing and budget-friendly, and one pot means one pot to wash.
- Tea without sugar contains plant compounds called polyphenols.
Watch out for
- Studies estimate that more than half the calories eaten in the UK come from ultra-processed food (packaged bread, ready meals, crisps, biscuits, sweet drinks), one of the highest shares in Europe. The biscuit tin is winning.
- The full breakfast is heavy in processed meat and salt, and fish and chips is deep-fried, often in refined oil.
- A few cups of sweetened tea with biscuits add up to a lot of sugar over a day. It's never just the one cup.
Eating well within it
- Keep the roast and stews; add extra vegetables, and make gravy from the pan juices instead of packaged granules.
- For breakfast, have porridge, or eggs with grilled tomatoes and mushrooms on whole-grain toast, in place of a full breakfast of processed meats.
- Enjoy fish and chips now and then; at home, bake the fish and roast potato wedges in beef dripping or olive oil.
- Cut sugar in tea gradually, half a spoon at a time, and your taste buds will hardly notice the heist.
Possible supplement needs
Vitamin D in autumn and winter, when UK health advice suggests many people consider it.
Who should be careful
People with high blood pressure or heart disease (salty processed meats and ready meals), and people with celiac disease (wheat in bread, pies, batter and gravy).
No. 28German and Central European Diet
Traditional cooking across central Europe is built on bread (especially dark rye and sourdough), potatoes, cabbage, sauerkraut, pork, sausages and cured meats, milk, quark and cheese, with beer in many regions. Afternoon coffee and cake is a cherished custom (and who could argue?), and in Germany the evening meal is often a simple Abendbrot of bread, cheese and cold cuts. Signature dishes include sauerbraten, schnitzel, goulash, dumplings and potato salad.
Strengths
- Germany has a strong bread culture, with many whole-grain rye and sourdough loaves rich in fiber. Here, bread is a serious subject.
- Fermented foods are a real strength: sauerkraut, pickles, quark, buttermilk and other cultured milk. Raw sauerkraut contains live bacteria; canned sauerkraut has been heated and does not. Same cabbage, very different crowd.
- Cabbage, root vegetables and potatoes are cheap, filling and nourishing, the unsung heroes of the winter kitchen.
Watch out for
- Sausages, ham and other cured meats are eaten often. The World Health Organization's cancer agency classes processed meat as a cause of bowel cancer.
- Salt is high from bread, cured meats, cheese and pickles.
- Beer is part of social life; regular drinking adds calories and health risks. Fermented, yes; health food, no.
- Cakes, pastries and white rolls add refined flour and sugar.
Eating well within it
- Choose dark whole-grain bread (Vollkornbrot) or rye sourdough over white rolls.
- Buy raw, refrigerated sauerkraut, and eat a forkful with meals. Live cultures, sold by the jar.
- In place of sausage and cured meats, have fresh beef or chicken, fish (herring is traditional in the north), lentil soup or bean stews.
- Keep coffee and cake for weekends, and choose fruit cakes such as plum cake made with less sugar. Let the plums do the sweetening.
Possible supplement needs
Vitamin D in winter. Usually few others if whole-grain bread and vegetables are eaten.
Who should be careful
People with high blood pressure (salty bread, cured meats and pickles), anyone avoiding alcohol, and people with celiac disease.
No. 29Russian and Eastern European Diet
Traditional food here is built on dark rye bread, buckwheat porridge (kasha), potatoes, cabbage, beets, mushrooms, sour cream, and fermented foods such as kefir, sauerkraut and pickled cucumbers. Favorites include borscht (beet soup, a national dish of Ukraine eaten across the region), cabbage soup, dumplings such as pierogi and pelmeni, smoked and salted herring, cured meats, and sunflower oil and mayonnaise in salads like Olivier salad, where the mayonnaise is less a dressing than a foundation; vodka is part of many celebrations. Many Orthodox Christians in the region keep church fasts, such as Great Lent, without meat or dairy.
Strengths
- Buckwheat, rye bread, cabbage and beets are cheap, filling and rich in fiber and minerals. Humble food, champion nutrition.
- Fermented foods (kefir, sauerkraut, pickles, kvass) are eaten daily in many homes, no marketing department required.
- Orthodox fasting seasons bring many plant-based meals of grains, vegetables and mushrooms.
Watch out for
- Russia and much of Eastern Europe have some of the world's highest death rates from heart disease; heavy drinking, smoking and salt are thought to play large roles.
- Pickles, salted fish, cured meats and smoked foods are very salty.
- Mayonnaise-heavy salads and refined sunflower oil add a lot of refined seed oil. A salad that is mostly mayonnaise is a salad in name only.
- Modern diets include more white bread, sweets, soda and processed sausage.
Eating well within it
- Make kasha, dark rye bread, borscht and cabbage soup everyday foods, topped with sour cream rather than mayonnaise.
- Choose vinegret (a beet and pickle salad dressed with oil) over mayonnaise salads, and use cold-pressed sunflower oil. Same beets, far less jar.
- If you drink, keep it small and with food; many people are healthier not drinking at all.
Possible supplement needs
Vitamin D in long northern winters. Using iodized salt matters in areas where iodine in food is low.
Who should be careful
People with high blood pressure or heart disease (salty and smoked foods), anyone with a history of heavy drinking, and people with celiac disease (rye, wheat and barley; buckwheat is gluten-free, despite its name).
No. 30Middle Eastern Diet
Traditional food in the Levant is close to the Mediterranean diet: olive oil, lentils, chickpeas, bulgur, vegetables and herbs, yogurt and labneh, flatbreads, and grilled meats, flavored with spices such as cumin, sumac and za'atar. Signature dishes include hummus, falafel, tabbouleh, fattoush, mujaddara (lentils and rice) and kebabs. Dates are eaten across the region, and many Muslims traditionally break the Ramadan fast with them each evening. Sweets like baklava are made for holidays and guests.
Strengths
- Legumes, bulgur, vegetables, fresh herbs and olive oil give plenty of fiber and healthy fats. A meze spread is a fiber festival.
- Yogurt and labneh are fermented and widely eaten.
- Many meze dishes (small shared plates) are plant-based.
Watch out for
- Several Gulf countries now have some of the highest rates of type 2 diabetes in the world, as diets have shifted toward fast food, sweet drinks and white rice, and people move less.
- Falafel and many snacks are deep-fried, often in refined seed oil, and shawarma sandwiches are often large, with white bread and rich sauces. Delicious, but built for occasions, not daily lunch.
- Baklava and other syrup-soaked sweets are high in sugar, and sweet tea and juice add more: sugar on top of sugar.
Eating well within it
- Fill the table with hummus, tabbouleh, fattoush, grilled vegetables and lentil soup, and have meat as one dish among many, not the headliner.
- Bake falafel at home, and choose grilled meat plates over shawarma wraps with heavy sauce.
- Choose whole-wheat pita or bulgur over white bread and white rice.
- In Ramadan, many find it helps to break the fast with dates and water, then soup, salad and protein, keeping sweets and fried foods small.
Possible supplement needs
Vitamin D deficiency is common in the region, despite strong sun, partly because people stay indoors in the heat. Plenty of sunshine, not much of it on the skin.
Who should be careful
People with diabetes (dates, sweets, white rice and bread raise blood sugar), and people with celiac disease (bulgur, pita and couscous contain wheat).
No. 31Ethiopian Diet
Ethiopian meals are served on injera, a large, spongy, sour flatbread made from teff batter fermented for a few days. It is plate, spoon and side dish in one: diners use it to scoop up stews called wots, such as misir wot (red lentils), shiro (ground chickpeas) and doro wat (chicken), seasoned with berbere (a chili spice blend) and often cooked in niter kibbeh (spiced clarified butter). Many Ethiopians belong to the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, whose fasts are fully plant-based: no meat, dairy or eggs. With Wednesdays and Fridays plus longer seasons such as the 55-day fast before Easter, devout believers fast for much of the year, often eating nothing until midday or afternoon.
Strengths
- Teff is a tiny whole grain rich in fiber, iron and other minerals, and naturally gluten-free. Small grain, big résumé.
- Fasting dishes (lentils, chickpeas, split peas, collard greens, cabbage and potatoes) are filling and high in fiber.
Watch out for
- Injera sold outside Ethiopia, and in some cities, is often mixed with wheat or barley flour, so it is not always gluten-free. Ask; don't assume.
- During long fasts, protein, calcium and vitamin B12 can run low if meals are mostly starch.
- Fasting dishes often use lots of cheap refined or palm oil.
- Raw meat dishes such as kitfo carry a risk of tapeworm and food poisoning.
- City diets now include more white bread, sugared tea and coffee, and soft drinks. The soda cooler has moved to town.
Eating well within it
- Ask for pure teff injera, or make it at home (bring patience: the batter takes a few days).
- On fast days, pair lentils or chickpeas with greens at each meal, and add flaxseed (telba) or sesame.
- On non-fast days, enjoy eggs and ayib (fresh cheese) for protein, calcium and B12.
- Ask for kitfo cooked through. Your gut will thank you.
Possible supplement needs
Vitamin B12 for people who keep long, frequent fasts.
Who should be careful
People with celiac disease (check the flour in injera). The church traditionally excuses young children, the sick and pregnant women from strict fasting; a priest can advise.
No. 32West African Diet
Traditional West African meals pair a starchy staple with a rich soup or stew. Staples such as yams, cassava, plantains, millet, sorghum and rice are often pounded into a dough like fufu and eaten by hand with egusi (melon seed) soup, groundnut (peanut) stew or leafy-green soups like efo riro. Red palm oil, smoked and dried fish, peppers and fermented locust beans (dawadawa) give the cooking its flavor. Jollof rice and Senegal's thieboudienne (fish and rice) are celebration favorites.
Strengths
- Leafy greens, okra, beans, groundnuts and seeds are eaten often, and it shows in the soup pot.
- Millet, sorghum and yams are whole staples, and fermented foods such as gari and ogi are common.
- Unrefined red palm oil is rich in carotenoids, which the body uses to make vitamin A.
- Small dried fish, eaten bones and all, add protein and calcium. The bones are the calcium, no tablet needed.
Watch out for
- Bouillon cubes go into almost every pot and are very high in salt. Tiny cube, big salt load. High blood pressure is common across the region.
- In cities, people eat more white rice, white bread, instant noodles, fried snacks and soft drinks; obesity and type 2 diabetes are rising.
- Cassava must be soaked, fermented or cooked properly to remove natural toxins, as traditional methods do. The old way is the safe way.
- Damp-stored groundnuts and grains can grow molds that make aflatoxins. Keep them dry.
Eating well within it
- Use fewer bouillon cubes; season with onions, ginger, peppers, dried fish and dawadawa instead. The flavor was always in the pot; the cube just took the credit.
- Make the soup the larger part of the meal, with plenty of greens, fish or beans, and a smaller ball of fufu or pounded yam.
- Cook jollof with extra vegetables and less oil, or make it with millet or fonio.
- Choose unrefined red palm oil over refined vegetable oil.
Possible supplement needs
Usually few. Iron may be worth checking for women and children, as anemia is common in the region.
Who should be careful
People with high blood pressure (bouillon cubes and salted fish), people with diabetes (large servings of starchy staples), and anyone with a peanut allergy.